Does the Qurʾān contain statements about thunder that conflict with established scientific knowledge?

This is one of the many criticisms directed at Islam regarding its alleged conflict with science. Critics argue that, while science explains thunder as the result of differences in air pressure within clouds causing small explosions that produce the loud sound we hear on Earth, Prophet Muḥammad (PBUH) described it as the sound of an angel of Allāh, entrusted with the clouds, who has fiery hooks to drive them wherever Allāh wills. They often cite the report of Ibn ʿAbbās, who narrated that the Jews came to the Prophet (PBUH) and asked, “O abū al-Qāsim, tell us about thunder—what is it?” He replied, “An angel from among the angels is entrusted with the clouds; with him are fiery hooks, which he uses to drive the clouds wherever Allāh wills.” They asked, “Then what is this sound that we hear?” He said, “It is the angel’s urging of the clouds as he drives them until he reaches the place he has been commanded to.” They said, “You have spoken the truth.”¹ To begin with, scholars have differed regarding the ruling of this ḥadīth; some have classified it as authentic, while others have regarded it as weak.² Nevertheless, if we assume it to be authentic and accept that thunder is indeed the sound of an angel, this does not conflict with the scientific explanation that thunder results from the impact of electrical charges in clouds, because there is no contradiction between the known (physical) and the unknown (metaphysical) causes of a natural phenomenon. In other words, it is not logically impossible for a single phenomenon to have more than one cause. For example, one may say that Allāh causes rain, while another explains it through evaporation and related physical processes—both statements are correct, as Allāh is the ultimate cause, and evaporation is the means by which His command is realized. Similarly, the Islamic notion that an angel is responsible for the clouds does not conflict with material explanations of thunder; metaphysical causes, such as the actions of angels, are compatible with the physical mechanisms of cosmic phenomena, as all are ultimately preordained by Allāh. For instance, everyone dies when the angel of death takes their soul, yet this does not contradict the fact that the cause of death may be a material factor, such as illness or an accident. In simple terms, although science does not address the existence of angels, it does describe the effects attributed to them in scientific terms. This does not preclude the possibility that angels exist as Allāh’s obedient servants who carry out His commands and operate behind what we call natural phenomena. There is broad consensus among Islamic scholars, past and present, that angels fulfill Allāh’s commands in the universe, often corresponding to natural forces. Therefore, the presence of a physical mechanism causing thunder does not exclude a metaphysical dimension. In sum, like all angels, the angel associated with thunder serves Allāh and obeys His command, illustrating that the presence of a metaphysical dimension to a scientifically explained phenomenon is neither impossible nor contrary to reason or common sense.

In fact, science is fundamentally insufficient to explain any phenomenon in a complete sense. If we ask, “What causes thunder?”, the scientific answer will be that it is the acoustic shock wave resulting from the extreme heat generated by a lightning flash. If we then ask, “Why does this acoustic shock wave occur?”, the answer will be that it develops as gases near the discharge experience a sudden increase in pressure. And if we press further and ask why this sudden increase in pressure generates an acoustic shock wave, the eventual scientific response is simply, “It is just so.” Thus, science does not truly explain the phenomenon in the sense of probing the cosmic purpose behind anything. Scientists may propose theories about how phenomena occur, but they cannot determine with certainty why they occur. Consider another example: if we ask, “What causes lightning?”, science tells us that it is an electrical discharge produced by imbalances between storm clouds and the ground, or within the clouds themselves. But if we ask why such imbalances lead to electrical discharge, the reply ultimately returns to “It is just so.” A third example may be taken: if we ask, “Why does water boil at 100 degrees Celsius?”, a self-assured respondent may explain that at this temperature water molecules move fast enough to break free from the forces that hold them together in liquid form, resulting in vaporization. Yet this merely postpones the final answer, because if we ask why water molecules overcome these forces at exactly 100°C, the answer once again arrives at “It is just so.” Hence, although science has significant explanatory power and offers valuable insights, it also has clear limits. It tells us what things are and how they occur, but it does not address every possible question. Most importantly, it does not seek purpose, and therefore we cannot rely on it alone.

To conclude, far from being impossible, the existence of a metaphysical dimension to cosmic phenomena is necessary. Indeed, those of sound intellect who reflect on the realm of causes and who understand the nature of scientific explanation recognize that, on rational grounds, every natural phenomenon must have a metaphysical dimension. Dr. Abū al-Fidāʾ ibn Masʿūd writes: “Allāh, Glorified and Sublime be He, decrees a matter in the heavens, and then the causes of its occurrence are carried out by angels entrusted with the details of this matter, in a manner that preserves the uniformity of the law of causation and the function of natural interpretation. Ultimately, nothing occurs except what Allāh decrees in His comprehensive decree, with precision, perfection, governance, and wisdom, according to laws that are known or unknown to us, whether manifest or hidden. This is the essence of faith in Allāh’s predestination of all things and His management of every small and great matter in the universe.”³ Glory be to Allāh, the King, whose supreme power enforces all decrees, ordains the course of every affair, and determines the appropriate measure of all things. Clearly, angels and their actions belong to the unseen realm, the counterpart of the manifest realm, encompassing all that lies beyond the reach of the senses and cannot be perceived externally. Ultimately, everything is subject to Allāh’s will, decree, management, and wisdom: what He wills comes to pass, and what He does not will does not come to pass: {and with Him everything is determined with due measure. ˹He is the˺ Knower of the unseen and the witnessed—the All-Great, Most Exalted} (Qurʾān 13:8–9).